The Cultural Landscape Under Nero and Domitian
By Paul Bernard
The reigns of Nero (A.D. 54–68) and Domitian (A.D. 81–96) represent two of the most infamous chapters in early Christian history, particularly with respect to state-sanctioned persecution. The cultural and political climates under both emperors were marked by imperial absolutism, religious expectations of loyalty to the emperor, and deep suspicion of minority groups who refused to conform. Christians—seen as subversive, ‘atheistic,’ and socially disruptive—often bore the brunt of the social hostility.
Persecution Under Nero: Scapegoating
The persecution of Christians under Nero is best remembered for its connection to the Great Fire of Rome in A.D. 64. According to Tacitus, when public suspicion turned toward Nero as the possible arsonist, he deflected blame back to the Christian community. Tacitus writes that Nero “inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace” (Annals 15.44). These brutal acts included crucifixions, burning Christians alive to light imperial gardens, and being torn by dogs. This episode marks the first recorded state persecution of Christians.
As Will Durant explains in Caesar and Christ, “Nero needed a scapegoat for the fire, and found it convenient to turn public indignation against a sect that was already disliked for its separateness, its mysterious rites, and its refusal to participate in Roman worship” (Durant, 1944, p. 281). Christians, with their refusal to worship the emperor or the gods of Rome, were seen not only as religious dissenters but as political traitors.
The Neronian persecution was likely localized to Rome, but it set a precedent. From this point onward, Christians were viewed as a dangerous cult—a perception that would deepen under later emperors, including Domitian.
Persecution Under Domitian: Cult of Loyalty
Under Domitian, the persecution of Christians took a less structured , but more philosophical form. While perhaps less visible and spectacular than under Nero, it was arguably more dangerous. Domitian demanded emperor worship and was especially intolerant of those who refused to honor him as “dominus et deus” (lord and god). This placed Christians—and Jews, to some extent—in immediate conflict with Roman civic religion. You’ll see this reflected in the articles about the seven churches later in this volume.
David deSilva, in An Introduction to the New Testament, writes that Domitian’s reign created a climate where “refusal to participate in emperor worship was viewed not merely as religious nonconformity but as treason against the state” (deSilva, 2004, p. 901). Christians’ loyalty to Christ over Caesar set them at odds with the empire’s expectations of absolute allegiance. They were accused of impiety, social disruption, and disloyalty.
Domitian’s actions against “atheists and Jewish practices” (as recorded by later sources like Suetonius and Dio Cassius) may not have been exclusively anti-Christian but often ensnared Christians due to their cultural and religious overlap with Judaism. His paranoia extended even to members of his own family and court.
Both Nero’s and Domitian’s reigns reveal how Christians were perceived as cultural outsiders. They refused to participate in festivals, sacrifices, or imperial cult rituals—actions seen as threats to Roman unity. Will Durant notes, “The refusal of Christians to share in pagan customs or festivals was taken as a sign of enmity to society, and often blamed for natural disasters or political setbacks.”
David deSilva explains, “To withdraw from the public rites of devotion to the emperor... was to stand against the order of the cosmos as defined by Roman ideology.” Christians who refused to burn incense before the emperor’s image or participate in festivals dedicated to Rome were seen as enemies of social cohesion. While Domitian’s actions did not result in organized empire-wide persecution, the atmosphere he created enabled local officials and hostile neighbors to accuse Christians of impiety and sedition. DeSilva notes this as “sporadic but real harassment,” a persecution that was often informal but deeply damaging.
Domitian’s demand for ideological and religious conformity placed Christians in a precarious position. They were excluded from guilds that required pagan worship, ostracized from civic life, and in some cases imprisoned, tortured, or executed. Yet amidst this cultural pressure, early Christian writings called believers to endure. Revelation, with its vivid imagery of cosmic conflict and divine justice, served as a theological response to Roman oppression and a pastoral exhortation to remain faithful. As deSilva writes, Revelation was “a call to remain faithful in the face of social and economic pressure to compromise one’s identity in Christ.”
Of course, the hostility did not only come from Rome, but from the Jewish community as well (as we see all through the book of Acts.) Jews often saw followers of Jesus as a threat to traditional beliefs and synagogue authority. deSilva notes that Jewish leaders in various cities viewed the Christian movement as heretical and sought to expel or silence its adherents, especially as Gentiles began joining in large numbers, further straining Jewish-Christian relations. This tension is reflected in Revelation 2:9 and 3:9, where the churches in Smyrna and Philadelphia are warned about opposition from those “who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan.” These harsh words highlight the depth of conflict between Christians and certain Jewish factions at the time, as Christians were increasingly ostracized from synagogues and, in some cases, reported to Roman authorities as agitators. This exclusion carried not only religious but also social and economic consequences, as being severed from the synagogue meant losing protection under the legal status Judaism held in the empire, making Christians more vulnerable to Roman hostility.
This hostility is vividly reflected in Revelation, where John writes from exile on the island of Patmos “on account of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus” (Rev. 1:9). Patmos, a small rocky island in the Aegean Sea, was used by Roman authorities to banish political or religious troublemakers. John’s banishment reflects the real-world consequences of resisting imperial demands. His message to the churches in Asia Minor must be understood against this backdrop of coercive imperial power and religious compromise. The visions of beasts, false prophets, and the demand to worship the image of the beast (Rev. 13) echo the reality of emperor worship and the pressure to conform under Domitian’s rule.
For Christians, it meant marginalization, persecution, and even exile. John’s banishment to Patmos is not an isolated event but a window into a broader struggle between the kingdom of God and the empire of man. The writings that emerged from this time, especially Revelation, offer both critique of imperial arrogance and hope for a future where Christ alone reigns as King of kings and Lord of lords (Rev. 19:16).
The reigns of Nero and Domitian formed the crucible in which Christian identity and theology were tested and refined. While Nero's persecution was grotesquely violent and politically motivated, Domitian's was more systemic, rooted in ideological tyranny and the demands of emperor worship. Both emperors contributed to the marginalization of Christians in the Roman world, forging a legacy of suffering that would shape Christian memory and theology for generations. These early trials also prompted the Christian community to solidify its understanding of faithfulness, endurance, and the kingdom of God in contrast to the oppressive claims of earthly powers.
References
David A. deSilva, An Introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, Methods, and Ministry Formation. InterVarsity Press, 2004.
Will Durant, Caesar and Christ: The Story of Civilization Volume III. Simon & Schuster, 1944.